Koichiro Takagi
Introduction
Since ancient times, war has been a battle of wills between the two parties involved, and humans have fought in the domain of cognition. In the 6th century B.C., Sun Tzu insisted on the importance of surrendering to the enemy without resorting to force. In the 5th century B.C., Thucydides argued that three elements of war were fear, honor, and interest. In the early 19th century, Clausewitz (1989) stated that war is an act to force one’s will on the enemy. Thus, the cognitive aspects of human beings in war are central to war theories.
An enemy’s recognition that he or she has lost the war is an important requirement for the end of the war. Very rarely in the history of warfare has there been a case, such as Carthage’s defeat to Rome, where a city is removed without a trace, the entire population is enslaved, and the state physically annihilated. In many cases, the will of the involved parties has determined the continuation and end of a war.
Sun Tzu and Basil Liddell-Hart argued for the importance of an indirect approach strategy that avoids physical warfare and affects the enemy’s will. However, Sun Tzu and Liddell-Hart did not offer specific suggestions on how to do so. Furthermore, the rapid development of science and technology in recent years—particularly information and communication technology, social media, and artificial intelligence—has rapidly changed indirect approach methods.
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