The nature and extent of the Taliban’s involvement in the drug trade before and after the regime change (1994–2022): insights from experts

Hamid Azizi

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Introduction

The convergence of organized crime and terrorism has been an ongoing concern. The United Nations Security Council Resolution 2482, adopted in 2019, warned governments about the increasing cooperation between terrorist and organized crime groups worldwide. This crime-terror cooperation occurs in diverse environments and involves groups, with a wide range of motivations, ready to engage in various criminal activities.Footnote1

State weakness, in conflict and post-conflict settings, serves as a catalyst for the emergence of the crime-terror nexus. When states exhibit vulnerability, and the inability to exert territorial control and enforce law, they inadvertently create fertile ground for the proliferation and empowerment of both terrorist entities and organized crime syndicates.Footnote2

According to Makarenko’s crime-terror model,Footnote3 terrorist and criminal organizations form alliances which can be one-off, a short-term or a long-term relationship. These alliances occur for various reasons, including mutual economic benefits, operational support, and the exchange of knowledge and expertise. Makarenko suggests that terrorist and criminal organizations ultimately converge into a single entity, at the midpoint in the crime-terror continuum. This convergence creates a hybrid entity that exhibits both ideological and economic motivations simultaneously. Examples of such hybrid entities include the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), the Irish Republican Army (IRA), and the Dawood Ibrahim company.Footnote