By Anant Mishra
28 May , 2016
Darfur has been boiling in conflict since 2003 when the Sudan Liberation Movement Army (SLM) and the Justice and Equality Movement Army (JEM) took up arms against the then Government of Sudan. Later in the years, Darfur became a “bloody conflict” as heinous war crimes attracted unprecedented media attention forcing the international leaders to discuss at numerous fora. Moreover, the United Nations described the crisis in Darfur as “the world’s worst humanitarian crisis.”
Sudan, once the largest country in Africa (until the emergence of South Sudan), has been the epicentre of ethnic and religious cleansing for decades. Sudan has been affected by many conflicts. Clashes between the North and the South have taken more than a million lives, and the unceasing clashes and conflicts in Darfur (the Western region of Sudan), have left over millions internally and externally displaced, and further resulted in more than 200,000 casualties.
The Darfur crisis is a sum of numerous ongoing conflicts in the region…
Darfur has been boiling in conflict since 2003 when the Sudan Liberation Movement Army (SLM) and the Justice and Equality Movement Army (JEM) took up arms against the then Government of Sudan. Later in the years, Darfur became a “bloody conflict” as heinous war crimes attracted unprecedented media attention forcing the international leaders to discuss at numerous fora. Moreover, the United Nations described the crisis in Darfur as “the world’s worst humanitarian crisis.”
As the situation intensified, international relief organisations began labelling the situation as “genocide.” Unlike other conflict situations in Sudan, the war in Darfur was beyond political marginalisation and ethnic cleansing of non-Arabs, but a conflict which began due to severe economic hardship which escalated into one of the biggest humanitarian crises in the history of mankind.
Behind the scenes of one of the largest humanitarian crises of all times lies a history of vast social inequalities, massive regional militarisation, acute rivalry for natural resources, and, most importantly, the history of bad governance which gripped Sudan right after independence from the British in 1956.
The current crisis is a result of a series of economic, environmental (resources) and political factors…
Background
Varying differently from the Sudanese conflict (which occurred between the Northern and the Southern Sudan), the crisis in Darfur is not due to religious indifference, rather it is result of economic and ethnic tensions between the Arab and non-Arab populations. It is also important to discourage the wide media coverage which labelled the conflict on “Black Africans” and “Arabs”. On the contrary, there are very slightly visible religious and ethnic disparities between the two conflict parties in Darfur. All the involved parties are equally indigenous, and most importantly, are Muslim.
Darfurians have different ethnic and linguistic groups. Within these groups, there are some non-Muslim sub groups such as Zaghawa, Fur, and Daju along with some Arabic-speaking groups such as Beni Helba, Missairiyya and Rizaiqat. Besides these groups, there are many small communities or sub groups, and they have similar cultural and physical characteristics. Darfur also has a long history of inter-marriages which has created ethnic fluidity in the region. In Darfur, the term “Arab” is primarily used on the basis of occupation, rather than on dialect or personal traits, as the majority of Arab speaking Darfurians are pastoralist. On the contrary, non-Arab speaking groups are predominantly farmers. Moreover, today the occupational boundaries have been crossed, creating fewer ethnic walls between the racial groups.
Since its independence from the British rule in 1956, Sudan witnessed a series of political instability and civil wars. If you look at the event historically, the Darfur crisis is a sum of numerous ongoing conflicts in the region. Many Sudanese crises have resulted in one conflict giving birth to another in a different part of the region. One among such infamous conflicts was the North and South Sudan conflict, which came to an end in 2005 after the successful signing of a peace treaty. Most conflicts in Sudan occur because of economic and political disparities, which existed in post-colonial and colonial Sudan. Such tensions are then fueled with economic and cultural domination of Arab Sudanese elites, who are quite influential and powerful enough to marginalise the non-Arabs in the region.
The JEM, a rebel group founded by Khalil Ibrahim, had a primary goal of regime change…
It is also important to understand that the current crisis is a result of a series of economic, environmental (resources) and political factors. In 1972, Sudan was hit badly because of intensified desertification and famines which resulted in heavy disputes over land between non-Arab farmers and Arab nomads. Also, Libya began interfering in the 1986 government of Sadiqi al Mahdi, which many non-Arabs interests felt “ignored”. In 1989, Sudan saw its first coup which was then led by Omar al- Bashir, crippling the then hopes, works and dreams of Sudanese government. The rise of Bashir saw heightened tensions between various Darfurian communities.
For the next two decades, the situation in Sudan remained intensified as government began marginalising and discriminating within its communities. Marginalisation and apartheid were heavily practiced, and the government divided Darfur into three different regions to break the unity among Darfuri tribes. Having been denied any services from the government, non-Arabs were the hardest hit as they were left to survive in the open. As the second civil war came to an end and by 2000s, the peace process began, the Darfuri’s hatred towards the government grew. Then the non-Arab Darfurian tribes began to form coalitions, which later took the shape of one of the biggest rebel groups in the country. Many local leaders began forming their own groups. One such leader was Khalil Ibrahim, a member of Zaghawa tribe, formed the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) while the Zaghawa and Fur tribes established the Sudanese Liberation Army (SLA).
By March 2003, the rebel groups began their attacks against the then Government of Sudan (GoS). In response, the GoS started recruiting armed forces, local militia to counter these attacks, with extensive support from the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF). Among those recruited, the Janjaweed was one of the major components of GoS counter-insurgency force. They instigated large campaigns of mass killings, forced displacement and rape as a weapon of war. Rape was commonly used as a means to eliminate black Africans and non-Arabs from Darfur. Furthermore, millions were internally displaced and many were forced to flee as refugees, mainly to Chad.
Millions were internally displaced and many were forced to flee as refugees, mainly to Chad…
Watching the ethnic cleansing and rapid displacement in Sudan, the international community had to respond. Many international organisations, non-governmental institutions and international humanitarian relief organisations came to protect Darfurians from mass killings and displacements. Among intense pressure for the West, the United Nations established one of first UN – AU hybrid missions to monitor the progress of 2006 Darfur Peace Agreement (DPA) and the 2011 Doha Document for Peace in Darfur (DDPD).
Major Organizations Involved, Justice and Equality Movement (JEM)
The JEM, a rebel group founded by Khalil Ibrahim, had a primary goal of regime change. The JEM began its rebellions in 2003, destroying the marginalisation process. Well-funded by the Chadian government these rebels primarily targeted military installations and government structures.
Today, the JEM has been rigorously fighting against the SAF and the Janjaweed. In recent years, JEM and its allies have launched many successful attacks against the GoS.
Sudan Liberation Movement (SLM)
The SLM is one of primary rebel groups operating in Darfur, fighting alongside the JEM. It was founded by the Darfur Liberation Front by the Fur and the Zaghawa tribes. By the end of 2007, the SLA split into three different factions, and other smaller “splinter” groups. Today, the founder of SLA, Abdul Wahid, is recognised as a reputed personality, especially among member of the Fur tribe.
Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF)
The SAF is the army of the Sudanese government. It is known for its numerous counter insurgency operations in Darfur. With the aid of its proxy militia, the Janjaweed, the SAF has perpetrated mass murder, forced displacement and rape that has flouted all international laws and regulations.
Watching the ethnic cleansing and rapid displacement in Sudan, the international community had to respond…
Janjaweed
Janjaweed is a militia group of the Sudanese Arab tribe that currently operates in both Darfur and Eastern areas of Chad. The Janjaweed is fighting against rebel organisations such as SLM and JEL. Before 2003, the Janjaweed was primary involved in conflicts revolving around land and water. However, with the fall of 2003, Janjaweed became more aggressive as it was heavily supported by the Sudanese government in fighting against rebel groups in Darfur. The Janjaweed are known to pillage towns and villages inhabited by African tribes and non-Arabic speaking population. It is notable that many Janjaweed leaders and commanders are wanted by the International Criminal Court. Although it is clear that Sudanese government aids the Janjaweed with arms, it continuously denies offering any support to the Janjaweed.
Previous Attempts to Resolve the Issue
As the conflict intensified in Darfur, many international aid organisations and government showed interest in resolving the conflict. However, after numerous attempts to resolve the conflict, the current situation clearly indicates that the efforts were very ineffective. Such attempts involve the two peace agreements and several minor treaties signed between rebel groups and the Sudanese government.
Today, peacekeeping missions are carried out in Darfur as international organisations bring the issue to discuss the final settlements between the two organisations. The African Union Mission in Sudan (AMIS) was founded in 2004 as the only external military force in Darfur. Eventually, a joint peacekeeping operation between the African Union and the United Nations Peacekeeping Mission (UNAMID) was deployed in October 2007 despite initial harsh opposition from the Sudanese government.
Today, the peacekeeping missions continue to operate and thousands of peacekeeping officers are protecting civilians in refugee camps. Along with efforts to resolve the issue through political channels, the UN is being supported by many African countries especially the neighbouring nations of Sudan. Also, many UN experts are closely monitoring the human rights situation in Darfur and fresh cases are presented in the court. In an effort to eliminate the support of the Sudanese government’s militia operations in Darfur, the Security Council imposed arms sanctions on all non-government entities, individuals and the Janjaweed operating in Darfur.
A reputed international aid organisation reported that crates of arms and ammunition were continuously being supplied by China and Russia…
Globally, many nations (especially from the West) have imposed sanctions on the Government of Sudan and all individuals associated with the government. For instance, the former US President George Bush declared US sanctions which negatively affected Sudan’s economy. Although the UN declared sanctions on Sudan, allegedly China and Russia broke them. A reputed international aid organisation reported that crates of arms and ammunition were continuously being supplied by China and Russia, violating UN embargoes.
Military vehicles produced by Russia and China were spotted inside Sudan and parts of Darfur. Despite numerous evidences, Russia and China denied their involvement in Sudan. It is also important to understand that China has maintained a close relationship with Darfur due to large amount of oil in the region. It is estimated that China’s state-owned company controls of approximately 70 per cent of Sudan’s total oil production.
Suggested Solutions
The crisis we see today in Darfur is heavily interlinked; parallel conflicts especially communal conflicts, ineffective policies and conflicts between the elite regional groups have been escalating clashes in the region. It is important to understand that resolving conflict in one region might escalate a conflict in another. Thus, with conflicts in most of the borders, the neighbouring nation’s role is also important. Arguably, the solution for the conflict in Darfur requires modification in the problem solving skills and tactics which should directly come from the Sudanese government. The seriousness to resolve the conflict should come directly from the government of Sudan. In order to have a peaceful and democratic Sudan, free and fair elections are the essential ingredients here, although it is most likely that there will be difficulties involved in such a process.
In order to have a peaceful and democratic Sudan, free and fair elections are the essential ingredients…
It is also important to understand that UNAMID is one of the world’s first hybrid peacekeeping organisations, and being the only one operating in the world, a series of uncertainties surround it. Thus, UNAMID must carefully examine various other peacekeeping missions carried out by United Nations in the rest of the world, as to better equip the personnel on the ground, while strengthening the command structure. One of the frequent challenges faced by this peacekeeping force is inefficient and untrained command structure especially when it comes to decision making and negotiations.
On the contrary, one should also address the issue of unification within the rebel groups; also, when we look back at the history of Sudan, the basic challenge is the number of peace treaties signed during the entire conflict, which comes around two in 25 years. Negotiation is one of the most important skills which will help resolve the conflict in the area, but before negotiating it is also important to see that the terms of the treaty satisfy all the parties involved in the discussions. It is also important for the authorities to ensure that there are no disagreements and violent groups picking up arms against the agreements. In order to prevent these issues from arising, negotiations and treaties must oblige and involve all parties which come under the scope of the issue.
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