By Anant Mishra
11 May , 2015
After the end of World War II, the political dynamics of the world changed from a multipolar to bipolar world. Those nations that were gripped in war were experiencing severe economic hardships and in the midst of this, two superpowers emerged, The United States of America and the then USSR (United Soviet Socialist Republic). For decades we witnessed neck to neck competition between the two in every sphere, from sports to military powers. The World was thus divided into two blocs- the western bloc (NATO) and the Eastern bloc (Warsaw Pact). The era was quite passive; mostly war like, due to its intensity came to be known as Cold War era.
The viewpoint of India’s foreign policy was “no role, no involvement”, hence India distanced itself from any of the major superpowers of the world, USA and the former USSR.
The first Prime Minister of independent India, Jawaharlal Nehru equipped the nation not only with a domestic vision but also a vision to see international arena. He was a national leader with a global view and also the founding father of independent India’s foreign policy. His policy, his structured way to interact on the international arena is relevant to us still today, till some contexts.
During the era of the Cold War, India was a newly independent nation whose existence and survival was questioned by intellectuals around the world. It was on the verge of establishing its first independently elected government and policies to disintegrate against all adversities. The viewpoint of India’s foreign policy was “no role, no involvement”, hence India distanced itself from any of the major superpowers of the world, USA and the former USSR. This policy later came to be known as Non Alignment. The Non Alignment movement was founded in Belgrade in 1961, and was attended by first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru; Indonesia’s first president, Sukarno; Egypt’s second president, Gamal Abdel Nasser; Ghana’s first president Kwame Nkrumah; and Yugoslavia’s president, Josip Broz Tito. Many third world nations joined India’s initiative. This initiative of Jawaharlal Nehru was very essential for India as it did not want to support any power nation nor it wanted to come under their influence and hence, a formulation of a non aligned foreign policy took place.
Once John Foster Dulles, US Secretary of State, asked Nehru “Are you with us or against us?” and Nehru replied “Yes”. Non Alignment was not just a policy of neutrality; it was a tool for an independent decision making.
India was independent but, independence came with a price. India was facing numerous issues, which it had to fight. It had to rebuild a long dead economy and unite itself. It was on the verge of establishing itself as a free sovereign nation thus, economic relations with other countries were restricted. Hence, during this time foreign policy were simply based on morals and ideas.
Nehru pursued a “macro” approach in foreign policy while Indira Gandhi took a “micro” approach as she was quite determined to establish India as a regional power.
Indira Gandhi and the second half of Cold War
Indira Gandhi became 4th Prime Minister of India in 1966. She was elected twice from 1966-1977 and again from 1979-1984. During her tenure, Gandhi introduced many changes in India’s foreign policy. She used her father’s policies as theoretical base for new guidelines; however she introduced some notable changes in the “implementation side”. Nehru pursued a “macro” approach in foreign policy while Indira Gandhi took a “micro” approach as she was quite determined to establish India as a regional power. She opposed the role India being a spiritual leader on international arena. She didn’t agree with her father’s policy of non alignment and established close relations with one superpower, while removing other from the equation. Thus, Indira Gandhi was the one who made India a strong regional power with a strong military.
Foreign Relations during Indira’s Rule
Bangladesh
In 1971, India fought its third war with Pakistan, in support of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). Supported by Soviet Union, India became victorious in just 11 months, which resulted in the independence of Bangladesh. Following the war India enjoyed close ties with Bangladesh. Despite India’s contribution in its liberation, many leaders in Bangladesh, especially military feared that the intervention had client state of India, antagonised by the Bangladeshi leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. The assassination of Mujibur Rahman in 1975 led to the emergence of Islamist extremism, who wanted to distance Bangladesh from India. Indira Gandhi’s relations with the regimes were quite restrained as she was supporting the anti Islamist forces in Bangladesh.
Sri Lanka
In the beginning of 70’s, India had friendly relations with Sri Lanka. Indira Gandhi had maintained a cordial relation with the Sri Lankan Prime Minister, Sirimavo Bandaranaike. India endorsed Sri Lanka’s socialist government under Bandaranaike. In the beginning of Sri Lankan Civil War (1980’s), insurgencies were carried against the Government of Sri Lanka by Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam (LTTE). In the wake of Operation Black Serpent in 1983, Gandhi rejected demands to invade Sri Lanka. She however emphasised on the territorial integrity of Sri Lanka and expressed that India cannot “remain a silent spectator to any injustice done to the Tamil Community”.
India’s relations with Pakistan grew intense even post Shimla agreement.
Pakistan
Indira Gandhi’s armed intervention in the liberation of Bangladesh, created massive dislike in West Pakistan, or today, Pakistan. India and Pakistan fought for the second time in 1971. India emerged victorious and, East Pakistan, or Bangladesh became independent. After the war, tensions between India and Pakistan increased. To prevent more conflict, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi along with her Pakistani counterpart Zulfikar Ali Bhutto signed the Shimla Accord in 1972. The agreement converted the cease fire line of December 17, 1971 into the Line of Control (LOC) between India and Pakistan and it was agreed that “neither side shall seek to alter it unilaterally, irrespective of mutual differences and legal interpretations”. India’s relations with Pakistan grew intense even post Shimla agreement. In 1974, Indira Gandhi oversaw the nation’s first nuclear explosion in Pokhran. Pakistani PM, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto perceived this as a threat to the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, establish its dominance in Asia. In 1976, both the leaders met again to commence diplomatic talks in an effort to ease the tensions between the two states.
India’s relation with Pakistan worsened after the rise of General Zia-ul-Haq’s in Pakistan. General Zia had ties with Khalistani militants in Punjab, and militant infiltration began after Gandhi’s authorization of Operation Meghdoot to capture the Siachen Glacier in 1984.
USSR (United Soviet Socialist Republics)
The Soviet Union supported Indian army and the Mukti Bahini throughout the 1971. The Soviet Union assured India of its extensive support to India even during US and Pakistan faceoff. With deep root ties with India, Soviet Union assured for counter support to India if the situation escalated.
Under the leadership Indira Gandhi, India’s relations with Russia strengthened substantially. Gandhi had a very clear foreign agenda, only “pro-Indian”
In August 1971, the Indo – Soviet treaty of friendship and cooperation was signed between Gandhi and Khrushchev. The treaty mainly involved promotion of friendship, peace and security both at bilateral and international levels. Under the leadership Gandhi, India’s relations with Russia strengthened substantially. Gandhi had a very clear foreign agenda, only “pro-Indian”. Indian critics said that she was very stubborn on her stand, leaning toward Moscow to an extent which was quite difficult and also embarrassing during the Soviet military intervention in Afghanistan.
USA (United States of America)
Under the leadership of Indira Gandhi, tensions with the US were quite sour. Frictions between India and the US occurred fro many reasons. America’s stands for Pakistan were very different from India’s. Pakistan and the US were allies throughout the conflict; hence going out war against Pakistan was not an option. One of the most important reason why US came helping was India’s strengthen ties with the Soviets. Gandhi had a different approach, hence she had to deviate from her father’s non aligned agenda, leaning more towards the Soviet and removing the US. The Americans could not accept the Indo- Soviet Treaty of friendship and co-operation.
Post Cold War (1991 – 1996)
Following the 1991 parliamentary elections, P.V. Narsimha Rao became India’s 10th Prime Minister. The end of the cold war brought many changes in the international order. The era of bipolar world politics and bloc politics in international relations came to an end in 1991. After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the US retained its position of sole power nation. All the nations, including India witnessed this sudden change in international relations, hence, Indian leaders were now tasked to rethink and reshape their foreign policy.
The post cold war foreign policy of India was linked quiet closely with the India’s economic policy.
Indian foreign policy under P.V. Narasimha Rao was greatly focussed on building relations with the US. Many experts believed that Indian foreign policy post 1991 was based on building strong relations with not only the United States, but also with the European Union, Russia, China, Japan, Israel, Brazil, South Africa followed by economically stable nations in Southeast Asia.
The post cold war foreign policy of India was linked quiet closely with the India’s economic policy. The economic crisis of 1991 – 92, Rao’s government realised that international relations were better for the nation if economics is added in it, as economics played a very determining factor in the soci political equations. Rao’s government then introduced new economic policy. This policy reform was welcomed by the US and other industrialised nations.
India’s relation with the US gradually improved after 1991. P.V Narasimha Rao also tried to improve relations with “just” neighbours Pakistan, China, Nepal and Sri Lanka. India extended its relations with the NATO member nations and successfully established a formal strategic partnership with Israel in 1992.
Present
Today India’s foreign policy has established one of the most important strategic relations with global nations. Coming down the lane, earlier, India’s foreign policy was just a principle rather than a practice. India soon became an example for all the emerging economies in the world. Experts believe that India’s foreign policy is based on “multi- alignment”. India’s foreign policy is now more focussed on strategic partnership for domestic development. Standing firmly on the values of peace and sovereignty, India shares diplomatic relations with most countries. India has attained a prominent voice in global affairs over the years.
Russia is the leading weapons supplier for the nation. Israel has emerged as India’s second largest strategic and military partner. India also has restructured its foreign policy with the US.
India has become one of the leaders in the developing world. It is a member of BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa) group of nations. India is also a member of United Nations, the G20 industrial nations, the World Trade Organisation, International Monetary Fund (IMF) among many. Territorially, India is a part of South Asian Association for Regional cooperation (SAARC) and the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multispectral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC). India has also established close ties with Arab League, Association of Southeast Asian Nations and the African Union. Today, the nation is building strong relations with the USA, China, EU, Pakistan, Brazil, Japan, Israel and Mexico.
Currently, Russia is the leading weapons supplier for the nation. Israel has emerged as India’s second largest strategic and military partner. India also has restructured its foreign policy with the US. India’s “Look East Policy” is also reformed, enabling partnerships with Southeast Asian countries. India is also a charter member of United Nations and is a member of many UN agencies. India has been calling for support for the seat of Permanent membership in the UNSC. It is also a member of the G4 groups of nations, constituting Brazil, Japan and Germany, all wanting permanent representation in the UNSC. It justifies its demand for permanent representation on the grounds that it is the second most populous country in the world, the world’s largest democracy, and it is the third largest in terms of purchasing power parity, the world’s ninth largest economy and maintains the third largest army in the world.
International Stand and Blocs
Pakistan
The joyous moments of Indian independence shall always be tainted with the bloody memories of partition. After six and a half decades, Pakistan continues to be a challenge to India’s foreign policy. The two nations are often termed as “blood brothers”. The two countries are diluted in a similar ethnic mix, but they also consider each other as enemies. Pakistan is a victim of its own oppression and yet it devotes it resources to undermine India’s power.
The UN mandate authorised a plebiscite in Kashmir once Pakistani forces withdraw. Sadly, UN failed to resolve the issue and till today, Kashmir remains a heated argument between India and Pakistan.
Kashmir
During the partition, each member state was given a choice, a choice of joining any one of the two country countries. Kashmir’s maharaja took quiet a time to decide his stand and when Pakistan sent his troops, Kashmir’s maharaja quickly acceded to India. Indian forces retaliated heavily against the invaders. Shocked by this stand, India dragged Pakistan to the UN, but faced disappointment. The UN mandate authorised a plebiscite in Kashmir once Pakistani forces withdraw. Sadly, UN failed to resolve the issue and till today, Kashmir remains a heated argument between India and Pakistan. Till now, India and Pakistan have fought four wars (in 1947-48, 1965, 1971, and 1999) and many across the ceasefire line, all initiated by Pakistan. Bangladesh Liberation war was another reason for conflict between the two.
Terrorism and Cross Border Tensions
India has been witnessing many terror strikes, especially those originating from Pakistan. Terrorist organizations such as Lashkar-e-Toiba are explicitly working for the ISI. 26/11 was once such incident that brought great grief to the nation, losing one of the top counter terrorist officers, the nation went into shock. Terrorism is an issue that demands pressing attention and immediate solution. Besides Kashmir, India has faced numerous provocative rounds of fire from the Pakistani counter parts along the border. There has been much proliferation of incidents, all emerging from the Pakistan side.
USA
India’s relation with the US has been quite fragile in the past. US opposed our non aligned stand during the entire cold war. To counter our like towards a communist state, Washington leaned towards the Islamic state of Pakistan. This led to India’s inclination towards the Soviet Union. Although after the cold war ended, relations between New Delhi and Washington started to warm up. The nuclear explosion of 1998 brought another twist in the relations as the nation came under heavy sanctions from the US. With the coming of Bush Administration in the 2000’s, strategic partnership between the two nations became headlines.
The world’s largest democracy and the world’s oldest democracy are proud sovereign nations. Their relationships between the two have miles to go.
Currently, US are an employer to most of the top IT professionals, especially Indians residing there. India on the other hand imports some of the essential products and services to the US telecom companies. India and the USA have also staged several partnerships in fields ranging from food security to spacecrafts (most importantly the civil nuclear agreement).
The world’s largest democracy and the world’s oldest democracy are proud sovereign nations. Their relationships between the two have miles to go.
Bangladesh
India is very concerned about Bangladesh. It’s rapidly declining economy, growing instability, declining governance and the rising Islamist forces pose a threat to India’s national security. China has been influencing the region. India – Bangladesh relations have been quiet sour due to the increasing security related issues such as arms trafficking, movement of people, transit and a gas pipeline have not been given importance in Dhaka.
Dhaka wants to address the issues on the sharing of water of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and other rivers along with trade and variety of border related concerns, including smuggling, but internal conflicts preoccupies it elsewhere. To ensure Bangladesh and India smooth relations, Trust between the two is a must. But in the race of trust, China seems to be going ahead.
With the recent change of power in Iran, there are signs of improvement in its relations with the US. Relations between India and Iran are tangled in a web that may prove difficult to solve.
India and the Middle East
The Middle East is a very important block for India; especially when we talk about petroleum supply and employment. The Middle East is an area of vast ethnic diversity and political instability, though influenced by Islamist fundamentalism and terrorism. For India it is a land of opportunity and terrorism.
There are three nations in particular that India keeps an eye for.
Iran
India, a part of the Indus civilisation has been interacting with neighbouring civilisations from decades. However, the interaction came to a halt after the invasion of the British. Post Independence, India’s relation with Iran revived but during the Cold war, it became complicated.
Today, relations with Iran have been quite deteriorating due to our talks with US since Washington still holds a hostile posture towards Iran. Post 1979 revolution in the Iran and the hostage crisis, relations between Iran and the US became hostile. Iran’s aggressive policy towards Israel and sympathetic policy with Palestine made difficult for India to maintain relations with Iran without offending its other partners.
Friendship with Iran has some advantages to look for. India is a developing nation and requires large amount of petroleum to run the wheels of its economy. Most of the petroleum India has to import. Today, energy security is a vital question that every nation needs to answer and for India, Iran is a vital source. For India, Iran is an influential Islamic state that can counter Pakistan’s anti propaganda in the Islamic world.
With the recent change of power in Iran, there are signs of improvement in its relations with the US. Relations between India and Iran are tangled in a web that may prove difficult to solve.
Saudi’s finances many Islamist and terrorist groups. Hence, terrorism is an issue that India needs to address.
Saudi Arabia
Due to the bipolar nature of politics throughout the cold war, Saudi Arabia and India were not technically on good terms. However after the end of the cold war, Saudi – India relations grew better.
Saudi Arabia is one of the largest crude oil exporters of India, a commodity which we need the most. Furthermore, a large number of Indian populations are actively working there, which makes the relation between the two nations, more important. The interests of the two nations are far than these.
India is a home to second largest Muslim population, a nation that sends many Muslims to the holy shrines at Mecca and Medina. Saudi’s finances many Islamist and terrorist groups. Hence, terrorism is an issue that India needs to address. Saudi authorities may also be uncomfortable with improvements in Indian relations with Israel.
Israel
There has been a steady strengthening of India’s relationship with Israel ever since India established full diplomatic relations with Israel in 1992. Fighting terrorism is a major issue and challenge for both India and Israel. Both the nations are democratic, states with large Muslim minorities, and face a threat from Islamic terrorism, which is again sponsored by its neighbours. Hence, these similar circumstances have created greater understanding between the two.
…India have to carefully manage it because it shares relationship with many other nations, viewing Israel as enemy number one.
Healthy relations with Israel benefits India in many fields. Huge investment in the field of research and development, Israeli weapons are enabled with “top of the class” technology in the international arms market, even better than European and American products. Israel is always keen to supply defence technology to India as it wants to balance the power the South Asia.
However, the range of issues that occurs with India and Israel bilateral relationship, India have to carefully manage it because it shares relationship with many other nations, viewing Israel as enemy number one.
European Union
India enjoys a healthy relationship with the European Union, dating their year of friendship from 1960’s. India was also the first Asian nation to establish relations with the European Union. The EU is India’s largest partner in trade, accounting for 20% of India’s trade. EU and India have established numerous agreements from nuclear energy to environmental protection. Their strategic partnership is oldest and deeper ties explain the confidence India has on EU.
Africa
Today, India has ties with almost every nation in the African continent. Indian government is very active to with respect to development in Africa. Indian businesses are very actively assisting African countries in achieving economic stability. Despite competition from China, India plays a very important role in Africa’s development.
Given the geographical location and ethnic structure of India and Sri Lanka, India cannot turn away from the happenings in Sri Lanka.
Sri Lanka
India’s relations with the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka have always been on and off. India, being Sri Lanka’s only neighbour with enormous presence of Tamil populations; ethnic presence has been the only factor for discussion between the two. Both the nations have strategic importance in South Asia and have discussed to make common strategic protection on Indian Ocean. Given the geographical location and ethnic structure of India and Sri Lanka, India cannot turn away from the happenings in Sri Lanka. India’s intervention in the Sri Lankan civil war had an impact on Sri Lanka’s attitude towards India. Sri Lanka “suspects” on India’s moves. However Sri Lanka fails to understand the New Delhi’s role of “good Samaritan”.
Despite the maritime agreements between the two, the issue of water boundaries still exists between the two. The main issue is the status of Kachchativu, a small barren island in the Palk Bay area. Through the 1974 agreement, India agreed to Sri Lanka’s sovereignty over Kachchativu, but with some safeguards to its Indian fishermen. At times, the Indian fishing boats strayed into the Sri Lankan waters. In due course of time, the Sri Lankan Navy became unfriendly to the Indian fishermen. Consequently, indiscriminate firing and killing of Indian fishermen became common. On 24th February, 2013, politicians from Tamil Nadu accused the Sri Lankan navy for attacking Indian fisherman near Kachchativu. Hence, a pro active policy towards the Sri Lankan counterpart is a must not just for the sake of the Tamil population in the country as but also for its own security and to counter the influence of China in Sri Lanka.
Nepal
Relations between Nepal and India are unique for many reasons ranging from geographical to cultural ties, and extensive institutional and social relationships. A cultural, economic and geographical factor along with the bond of religion greatly influences their bilateral relations. Despite some troubles in the past, India’s relations with Nepal are close, stable and mutually beneficial for both the nations. Nepal and India shares the “movement of free path”. The Nepal India peace treaty of 1950 is the backbone of their relationship. Nepalese enjoy many benefits in India, from educational to employment, equivalent to those that are enjoyed by an Indian.
…Nepal is not adequately appreciative of all that India has done and provided for the country.
India extensively supports the government of Nepal by undertaking development projects in the fields of infrastructure, health, rural and community development. India is the largest trade partner and biggest source of foreign investment and tourism. Collaboration between the two on water resources are again an example of friendship between the two. However, Indo- Nepalese relations are not without difficulties. Nepal professes that India has encroached on its borders, setting up military encampments and other official as well as unofficial settlements at 71 different places. By Indian perception, Nepal is not adequately appreciative of all that India has done and provided for the country. Today, by all accounts, India and Nepal shares a healthy and bilateral relationship.
China
India and China were once home to great civilisations. Trade and communication between the countries are prehistoric. Talking about 20th century, both the nations have emerged as the face of developing world. They have restored their friendship, at least tried to. India and China are an absolute example of economic growth in the 21st century.
These two grooming power nations have had a rocky relationship from the start. I have classified their relationship into three parts:
Without a doubt, India and China are the two most populous countries in the world. Hence both the nations require ea cloud of security and cooperation.
Competition – “It’s just mine”
Western nations often view India and China as emerging Asian economic powers. Some experts have coined them together as “Chindia”. However, the truth is little different. The Chinese economy is far more advanced than that of India’s and is the second largest economy (actual dollars) in the world, whereas India stands eleventh. China is a part of globalised economy before India gained independence. The 2008 Beijing Olympics was an absolute example of how the “dragon” out ways our “shera”. The two nations don’t even stand together when we talk about sporting competitions. No meaningful competition exists between the two.
Co-operation: “It’s yours and mine”
Without a doubt, India and China are the two most populous countries in the world. Hence both the nations require ea cloud of security and cooperation. There are many challenges before they even tend to sign a bilateral treaty. One of the most important challenges is the security. The Border Defence Co operation Agreement between India and China, signed by both sides at the conclusion of talks between Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and Chinese Premier Li Keqiang at the Great Hall of the People was to ensure peace on the borders. While China has become the sole player in the hardware manufacturing business; India has left its mark as the software king. Well, in matters like these, China and India compliment each other. Now the question is whether these two countries cooperate during a politically aggravated conflict.
Conflict – “Not yours, its mine”
Nehru coined the popular slogan, “Hindi Chini Bhai Bhai”. But after the 1962 war it quickly became “Hindi Chini Bye Bye”. India faced a humiliating defeat from the Chinese forces, which not only won a decisive victory but also secured 23,200 sq. km. of Indian Territory.
India as a matter of fact, has a very little choice, on the ground of its own freedom and principles, India cannot rewrite freedom of speech for the Tibetans.
India and China share the longest disputed border in the world and the situation became even more unclear post 1962. Recently, Beijing has taken pains to remind New Delhi about its claim over another 92,000 sq. km. of Indian Territory mainly in the state of Arunachal Pradesh. There have been numerous incidents along the border in the past three years. It seems as if Beijing has made a conscious decision to keep Indians on their toes.
But the problems do not end here; Tibet is another major cause of concern between the two countries. Even though, India recognises Tibet to be an integral part of China, but it also provides refuge to H.E. Dalai Lama and Buddhist monks. India is quiet conscious on this subject, offending the Chinese. But the fact of the matter is that India has little choice. India as a matter of fact, has a very little choice, on the ground of its own freedom and principles, India cannot rewrite freedom of speech for the Tibetans. Nor it can play the cards of “offensive and strategic response” against the superpower, which is extremely tricky on the issue of Tibet.
A Princeton University Professor once wrote “India’s competition with China is not just economic or geostrategic; in a sense it is existential- a clash of two competing political systems, bases of state legitimacy, and ways of ordering state society relations”.
No comments:
Post a Comment