19 Jan , 2015
Before the advent of Christianity, the hill tribes of Assam practiced animism. An important consequence of the spread of British administration in the hills of Assam was undoubtedly the arrival of missionaries, which led to many hill tribes converting to Christianity. People in the Brahmaputra and the Imphal Valleys had already embraced Hinduism before the advent of British colonialists in North-east India.
The spread of Christianity in the hill districts of Assam followed the British administration. The East India Company was more interested in expanding trade in India than spreading Christianity or civilising the tribes. In the early days of colonisation the European community in India was bitterly opposed to missionaries, chiefly because they might have a disturbing effect on Indians.1 The Charter Act of 1813 laid down as a duty of the administration to introduce useful knowledge, help religious and moral improvement, reduce the powers of the East India Company and increase the control of the British Parliament over Indian administration.
The administration and the missionary worked hand in glove, one facilitating the work of the other. Interestingly, the spread of Christianity in the hill areas of North-east has been faster after Independence than before it.
Christianity thus came to the hills of the North-east as a consequence of administrative policy.2 The Welsh Presbyterian Mission introduced the Roman script and showed greater zeal for proselytising, as did the American Baptists, who encouraged the Assamese language and script. The abolition of East India Company’s powers in 1833 gave a fillip to mission work. During the British rule, the administration supported the work of missionary and subsidised the cost of education, yet the North-east was not open house for missionary work.
Mission work was prohibited in part of Garo Hills, unadministered area of Naga Hills, Arunachal and the plains of Manipur and until 1930 in Tripura.3 Political and social factors decided the extent to which proselytising was permitted. The administration and the missionary worked hand in glove, one facilitating the work of the other. Interestingly, the spread of Christianity in the hill areas of North-east has been faster after Independence than before it.
David Scott, the first Commissioner of Assam, brought some English missionaries to preach Christianity to the Garos. Major Jenkins, who succeeded David Scott as the Commissioner of Assam invited American Baptists to come to Assam. In 1836, Rev Nathan Brown, Miles Bronson and OT Cutter came to Sadiya to take up proselytising work, but did not make much progress amongst the Hindus and tribals (animists) of the plains. From Sadiya they moved to Sibsagar where they established a mission but here again the missionaries did not meet with much success. Bronson then moved to Tirap, where he concentrated on establishing a mission school to teach the Gospel to the Nagas, but had to leave due to death of his sister.4 By and large the American Mission remained confined to the Brahmaputra Valley, espousing the cause of Assamese language.
Christianity in Nagaland
It was only after the arrival of Rev EW Clark that proselytising began to have some success. Encouraged by Clark’s success in baptising a few Nagas in November/December 1872, he was granted permission to open a permanent mission amongst the Ao Nagas. The first Christian village was founded at Molungyimsen in 1876, which was moved to Impur 10 miles North of Mokokchung in 1894. Clark served in Nagaland for nearly three decades and left Nagaland in 1911. He produced Ao-English dictionary and translated the gospels of Mathew and John in Ao language.
In the beginning of the 20th century, there was not a single Christian in Manipur but the decadal growth of Christians as a whole during 1961-71 was 83.66 percent.
Christianity spread well in Ao area but its progress was slow in the Angami and Lotha areas. In Angami area, Christianity spread much later in the beginning of 20th century.5 Angami language was reduced to writing in Roman script and Biblical work was translated in Angami. The American Baptist Mission entered Naga Hills only after 1876, when the hills had come under some kind of administration. As late as 1891 AW Davis wrote that Nagas were not inclined towards Christianity. In 1947 only 20 percent of the population was Christian in Nagaland; as against nearly 85 percent in 2005. 1991 census put the Christians at 87.47 percent of the total population.
Spread of Christianity in Manipur
In Manipur missionary work was started by American Baptist Church in 1894 in Mao area, three years after the administration was taken over by the British. They met with much resistance from the animists; the Meiteis of the valley had already converted to Hinduism and were against missionary work. However, the missionaries found the Tangkhul Nagas in Ukhrul area more amenable. Schools were built primarily to convert the hill Nagas of Manipur.6 By 1907 a strong foundation was laid in the hills of Manipur for the spread of Christianity. In the beginning of the 20th century, there was not a single Christian in Manipur but the decadal growth of Christians as a whole during 1961-71 was 83.66 percent. The Christian population of Manipur as per 1981 census was 34.11 percent of the total population.
Phenomenal Success in Mizoram
In Mizoram, Christianity came in the closing decade of 19th century close upon the heels of the administration in 1890. Two British missionaries came to Aijwal in 1894 and opened two missions – one by Welsh Presbyterian and the other by London Baptists. The spread of Christianity in Mizoram has been phenomenal. In 1901 census, Lushai Hills recorded only 26 Christians in a population of 82,434. By 1981, more than 80 percent of Mizoram population had converted to Christianity.7 The Christian population of Mizoram as per 1991 census was 85.73 percent of the total population. The centenary of the coming of Christianity to Mizoram was celebrated with great fervor in 1994.
Christianity in Meghalaya
In Meghalaya, the first Presbyterian Church was established amongst the Khasis in 1841 and the American Baptist Mission in Garo Hills in 1864. Before the coming of Christianity, Khasis and Jaintias worshipped a formless God and referred to their religion as Niamtre, while Garos refer to their traditional religion as Sangrarek.8
The first Catholic Mission in the hills was German, which was opened towards the end of the 19th century but remained confined to Shillong. During the World War I, Italians replaced it. In 1933, the Catholic Church was opened in Tura in the Garo Hills. The Christian population of Meghalaya as per 1991 census was 64.58 percent of the total population. Incidentally, the influence of the Church of England in the hills is minimal.9
The Christian population of Meghalaya as per 1991 census was 64.58 percent of the total population.
Leaving aside the Buddhists, the rest follow Hinduised version of the tribal religion. However, many local people have adopted Islam through marriage and at present there is a sizeable population of local converts to the religion. The Hinduised tribes, who inhabit the state, are greatly influenced by the Bhakti Movement. The Ramakrishna Mission and Brahmo Samaj have established their missions in Meghalaya but their influence has been minimal.
Arunachal: A Different Story
The situation in Arunachal was somewhat different from other hill areas of the North-east. The indigenous people of Arunachal practice a form of worship called Donyi Polo, which is really the worship of omnipresent, omniscient and omnipotent and is described as the cause of all creations including air, water, earth, soil, trees and flowers.10 Because of the tensions and clashes, which the aggressive extension of missionary activities was causing in the area, the Arunachal Pradesh Freedom of Religion Act was passed in 1978.
This Act prohibits conversion from one religion to another by use of force or inducement or by fraudulent means. While putting a ban on conversion from indigenous faiths to any other religion, the Act describes the indigenous faith as such religions, beliefs or practices including rites, rituals, festivals, observances, performances, abstinence, customs as have been found, sanctioned, approved, performed by the indigenous communities of Arunachal from time these communities were known and includes Buddhism as prevalent among the Monpas, Sherdupkens, Khampas, Khampatis and Singphos, Vaishnavism as practiced by Noctes and nature worship including Donyi Polo as prevalent among the indigenous people of Arunachal.
There is a suggestion that the Act extends protection to Buddhism and Vaishnavism as prevalent in Arunachal but Christians are kept outside the protective wing. But despite the Act, Christianity has made rapid progress; in 1971 less than 0.8 percent of the population of this area was Christian, by 1994 nearly one-eighth of it had been converted.11 As per 1991 census, the population of Christians in Arunachal was 10.29 percent; the population of Hindus was 37.04 percent, Buddhists 12.88 percent, Muslims 1.38 percent, Sikhs 0.14 percent, Jains 0.01 percent, others 36.22 percent and not stated 2.04 percent of the total population.
Exposure to Hinduism
The impact of external exposure on tribal societies has been profound and manifested in the spread of religion. In pre-British days Hinduism had the most important influence in the plains of Assam. Sanskritisation and Aryanisation of Assam took place over a long period of time. Suniti Kumar Chatterjee is of the view that the Aryanisation of the ruling classes of Kamrupa was complete as early as 400 AD and by the end of the early medieval period, that is by 1200 AD, the Brahmaputra Valley had become a part of Aryan speaking India.12 The process of Sanskritisation gathered momentum during the period of Sankaradeva (1449-1568), whose liberal brand of Vaishnavism brought thousands of tribal people of the Brahmaputra Valley within the fold of Hinduism. Islam had no place in the hills except through a few immigrants.
The influence of Hinduism was so great in this region that 1881 census report of Assam noted, “wherever they (the hill people) are not protected by mountains or jungles, the non-Aryan residents have invariably yielded, and are yielding, to the over powering fascination of the Hindu religion.”
Hinduism was a great success in Hill Tipperah, where 1901 census recorded Hindus as 69 percent, Muslims 26 percent (almost wholly immigrant plains people), Buddhist 3 percent and animists 2 percent of the population.13 Other Hindu communities in the North-east are the Meiteis in Manipur and the Kacharis. There are also Hindu Khasis on the Sylhet side. The influence of Hinduism was so great in this region that 1881 census report of Assam noted, “wherever they (the hill people) are not protected by mountains or jungles, the non-Aryan residents have invariably yielded, and are yielding, to the over powering fascination of the Hindu religion.”14
The Brahmo Samaj came to Shillong in 1870s. In the summer of 1901, Vivekanand visited the Khasi Hills. In 1921, the Ramakrishna Mission opened a centre near Cherrapunji and later another in Shillong. The Ramakrishna Mission incidentally is the only Mission that has been allowed to open a school in Arunachal.
Situation after Independence
Until the end of 19th century, no significant progress in the spread of Christianity could be achieved in the hills. However, it began to make rapid progress from the beginning of the 20th century and picked up momentum soon after Independence. An integrated religionwise picture of the hills in 1961 furnished by the deputy registrar general of India is revealing. Among the Mizos in Mizoram, Christians were 96.95 percent, Hindus 1.37 percent, Tribals 0.07 percent and Buddhists 1.54 percent of the population. Among Cacharis 93.63 percent were Hindus and 6.16 percent were Christians.
That is why the charge that Church creates extra territorial loyalty does not stand.
In Manipur, among Hmars 99.21 percent were Christians; among Mizos 99.98 percent and among Paites 88.69 percent were Christians. In Naga Hills 56.12 percent of the population was Christian, 3.62 percent Hindu and 27.15 percent was tribal.15 This indicates that the spread of Christianity has not been adversely affected after Independence. This also nails the allegation made by some missionaries that the community is being discriminated against in propagating the religion.
In Arunachal, the spread of Christianity has been minimal, as government policy discourages proselytising. The impact of Arunachal Pradesh Freedom of Religion Act 1978 has already been discussed earlier. Christianity came to Garo and Khasi Hills much earlier than Naga and Mizo Hills, yet its spread in latter has been more spectacular, possibly because the former were exposed to non-Christian influences more intensively than Nagas and Mizos.16
The Impact of Christianity on Tribal Societies
There is a view, some say misplaced, that the Christian missions alienated the tribes from their roots, indigenous culture and customs, which had many commendable traits. The loyalty of the converts was directed towards their own groups and the non-converts were regarded as sinners. SK Chaube, who has studied the subject in considerable depth, opines that the idea of groupness is germane to the type of teaching presented to the Nagas. But the Christians did not create the sense of medieval Christian unity. For example, when Baptist Church in Nagaland was nationalised, it was reorganised as Angami Association or Ao Association etc. That is why the charge that Church creates extra territorial loyalty does not stand.17
Verrier Elwin who influenced the policy of the Government of India towards the tribes after Independence was very critical of the cultural and traditional moorings of the Nagas becoming weak under the influence of Christian missions. This is what he had to say: “The activities of the Baptist mission among the Nagas have demoralised the people, destroyed tribal identity, and forbidden the joys and feastings, the decorations and romance of community life.” Sir Robert Reid, who had been the Governor of Bengal, however, took a different view. He said: “But methods of proselytising had become modified as the years passed, and latter day missionaries sensibly tried to preserve all that was good in old tradition.” 18
The spread of Christianity in the 19th century, mainly through American Baptist Mission – although others like Presbyterian, Roman Catholics, Methodists, Seventh Day Adventists, and the Salvation Army etc also contributed – had both positive and negative impact on tribal societies. On the positive side, it forbade perpetual feuds, headhunting, encouraged abstaining from intoxicants, discouraged propitiation of the evil Gods and other licentious behavior. It is argued that the spread of Christianity brought the tribes out of isolation and introduced them to the other civilisations of the world. But this view is contradicted by the imposition of the Inner Line regulation, which was intended to keep the tribes isolated, particularly from the happenings in mainland India.
What really exposed the tribes of the North-east to the outside world were the two World Wars, which brought them in contact with people of other nationalities and civilisations. Whatever may be the criticism of the work of Christian missions, it is hard to deny the many reforms introduced by them. The construction of living houses, segregation of animals from living quarters, personal hygiene and personal cleanliness, disposal of the dead through burial in community cemetery were introduced and/or encouraged by the missionaries.
Christian missions were pioneers in the field of education and health care but in one respect the Church education left a dangerous legacy: “ The Mission carried out a uniform policy of imparting Roman script to the hill dialects, which were indeed enriched, but permanently alienated from the contiguous plain languages from which many hill dialects had drawn heavily. Thus Garos and Khasis are in the process of forgetting Bengali, just as Nagas are estranged from Assamese, despite the fact the lingua franca of Nagas is even today a broken form of Assamese.”
On the negative side was the excommunication of unfaithful who broke the Sabbath and participated in traditional singing of folk songs. Christianity widened the barrier and the conflict between the hills and the plains. Professor WC Smith of the University of South California has drawn attention to the ill effects of the way in which Christianity was presented to the tribes: “ There is a grave danger that Christianity as presented to the people (Nagas), comes to be little more than the adoption of another set of taboos, and taboo is no new element in the life of any group on a low cultural level. Under the old system the Nagas had to refrain from working on the fields on certain days, lest their God Lizaba curse the village with an epidemic or blight the rice crop; now they must refrain from work on the Christian Sabbath, lest Jehovah, the God of Israel smite them for their wickedness.”19
Charge of Encouraging Secessionist Groups
There have been insinuations that Christian missionaries have encouraged secessionist groups in the North-east particularly in the years immediately before and after Independence. This gained credence from the activities of some of the colonial administrators, who wanted to carve out a ‘Crown Colony’ comprising of Arakan, CHT, Chin Hills, Lushai Hills, Naga Hills, Sadiya, Lakhimpur, Balipura Frontier Tracts and hill areas of Tripura and Manipur.
There are intelligence reports with the government that establishes the link between specified missionary groups and secessionists groups in Nagaland and Manipur.
There is some truth in the allegation that Church leaders in Nagaland encouraged secessionist groups soon after Independence. The role played by Rev Michael Scott, a British national who was invited by the Church leaders of Nagaland to be one of the members of the peace mission, which facilitated the cease-fire in 1964, was clearly partisan and inconsistent with the role of a neutral facilitator during the negotiations.
Even as Indira Gandhi had agreed to meet the Naga underground in 1966, Michael Scott was corresponding with the Burmese Government on behalf of the underground and was in touch with the United Nations pleading the case for Naga Independence. Consequently, Scott was expelled from India for activities inconsistent with his neutral status.20 And perhaps it is not accidental that the leaders of the two early rebellions in the North-east, Phizo and Laldenga, were extended liberal patronage by the Church of England with all facilities for coordinating the activities of their followers.21
For over a hundred years, the Church functioned in tandem with the British administration. That kind of protection and cooperation was not possible after Independence. The Church, therefore, had to readjust its goal and its tactical devices.22 The aim henceforth of an influential part of the Church was to carve out states, in which Christians would be in majority as Christians or, at the least, areas in which persons running the governments would be amenable to the influence of the Church. The effort has proceeded farthest in the North-east.23
Religious nationalism is a significant feature of contemporary Asian politics. The birth of Pakistan is an outstanding example.
There are intelligence reports with the government that establishes the link between specified missionary groups and secessionists groups in Nagaland and Manipur. Specific information points to their association with insurgent groups like the Naga National Council (A) led by Adino Phizo, daughter of AZ Phizo, and the NSCN (IM).24 In Mizoram the role of the Church is overtly political. In 1988 two separate incidents involving Fathers of the Dengtol Mission and the Sarabil Centre pointed to their association with the Bodo activists.25 In 1992, two British nationals were caught; they had been advocating separate Naga country through a Naga Vigil Organisation and had been receiving active support from the insurgent Naga National Council (A).26
“Religious nationalism is a significant feature of contemporary Asian politics. The birth of Pakistan is an outstanding example. There are similar movements associated with Christianity among Nagas in Assam, among Karens in Burma and Ambonese in Indonesia. When Indonesia became independent the Ambonese, most of whom were Christians, revolted against their own national Government. When Burma went out of the British Commonwealth, a good number of leaders of Karen, who revolted against the state of Burma, were Christians. Today some of the agitators for independent Naga state are also Christians.”27 The manifesto of NSCN (IM) has Nagaland for Christ as one of its objectives. The recent secession of East Timor, which is predominantly Christian, from Indonesia, has only aggravated the fears of many Indians about the separatist agenda of a section of Nagas.
The charge of alienation against the Christians has to be viewed in an objective manner. For more than one hundred years the missionaries denounced Hinduism for its caste system and painted it as a religion of superstition and devoid of any moral compass. No wonder as Christianity progressed in the hills so did the barrier widen between the people of the hills and plains. The impact of Christianity was not limited to the relations between the hills and the plains; it was more profound on tribal societies.
Hutton, an ICS officer posted in Mokokchung was of the view that “ role of the Baptist Mission among the tribal in general and Nagas in particular has been injurious and disruptive to their culture.” But these are only one side of the coin. With the passage of time and devolution of political powers, the extra territorial moorings of hill tribes have irrevocably weakened. Although a section of the Church in both Nagaland and Mizoram had given moral support to insurgent groups, they played a constructive part in helping restore peace in strife torn tribal societies by providing a neutral forum between the insurgents and the Indian Union.
This has been their most salutary role. In Meghalaya, Rev Nicholas Ray was instrumental in integration of Khasi states. A lobby among Khasi leaders led by Rev Gatoph advocated a separate entity outside India, but the plan did not get approval of the majority in the Church.
Assam’s problem of identity to a large extent has been caused by the large-scale illegal immigration of Bangladeshi. They fear the prospect of immigrants from Bangladesh, most of who happen to be Muslims, outnumbering them. This has already been discussed in Chapter 2. Yet another dimension in the form of Muslim fundamentalism, which grew soon after the demolition of the Babri Masjid, and Islamic jihad, has been injected in the politics of Assam in the recent years.
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